Mantenimiento del español en el estado de Washington. Exploración del posible bilingüismo en los Estados Unidos: una perspectiva de jóvenes hablantes de herencia del español
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22201/cepe.14059134e.2021.22.26.304Palabras clave:
Español en Estados Unidos, mantenimiento de la lengua, español como lengua de herenciaResumen
Se suele equiparar el incremento de la población latina o hispana en los Estados Unidos con el de la expansión de la lengua española en ese país. Y es que el vigoroso incremento de este grupo poblacional, el cual ascendió al 18.5% de la población en 2020, se presenta como un hecho irrefutable de que el español ocupará cada vez más espacios hasta empatar su presencia con la del inglés en la sociedad norteamericana. Aunque intereses económicos, políticos o sociales soslayen el contexto lingüístico del español como lengua minoritaria y en situación de contacto de lenguas, se asume que estas comunidades conservarán y transferirán el español a las próximas generaciones, a pesar de que existe evidencia histórica del desplazamiento hacia el inglés de las comunidades inmigrantes establecidas en los Estados Unidos. Según los estudios de Fishman (2001), en no más de tres generaciones las comunidades inmigrantes pierden sus lenguas de origen y se vuelven monolingües en inglés. Es decir, autoidentificarse como latino o hispano no es sinónimo de hablar español. Por ello, este estudio explora las siguientes preguntas de investigación: ¿difieren los hablantes de herencia en la frecuencia y el uso de español entre diferentes generaciones? Y ¿los hablantes de herencia nacidos o que emigraron a los Estados Unidos antes de los cinco años difieren en sus actitudes hacia el español en comparación con aquellos que emigraron después de los cinco años?
Citas
Abrahamsson, N. y Hyltenstam, K. (2008). The robustness of aptitude effects in near-native second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30(4), 481-509.
https://doi:10.1017/S027226310808073X
Abrahamsson, N. y Hyltenstam, K. (2009). Age of onset and nativelikeness in a second language: listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Language Learning, 59(2), 249-306.
https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ewu.edu/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00507.x
Anderson-Mejías, P. (2005) Generations and Spanish language use in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Southwest Journal of Linguistics, 24(1), 1-12.
Arriagada, A. (2005). Family context and Spanish-language use: A study of Latino children in the United States. Social Science Quarterly, 86(3), 599-619.
Beaudrie, S. M. y Fairclough, M. A. (2012). Spanish as a Heritage Language in the United States: The state of the Field. Georgetown University Press.
Bills, G., Hudson, A. y Hernández-Chávez, E. (2000). Spanish home language use and English proficiency as differential measure of language maintenance and shift. Southwest Journal of Linguistics. 19(1), 11-27.
Birdsong D (2009) Age and the end state of second language acquisition. En Ritchie, W. C. y Bhatia, T. K. (Eds.), The new handbook of second language acquisition, Bingley: Emerlad. 401–424.
Cervantes-Soon, C. G. (2014). A Critical Look at Dual Language Immersion in the New Latin@ Diaspora. Bilingual Research Journal, 37(1), 64-82.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2014.893267
Colombi, C. & Harrington, J. (2012). Advanced biliteracy development in Spanish as a Heritage Language. En Beaudrie, S. M. y Fairclough, M. A. (Eds.), Spanish as a Heritage Language in the United States: The state of the Field (pp. 241-258). Georgetown University Press.
DeKeyser R (2000) The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22(4), 499–533
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100004022
DeKeyser, R.M. (2013), Age Effects in Second Language Learning: Stepping Stones Toward Better Understanding. Language Learning, 63: 52-67.
https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ewu.edu/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00737.x
Dörnyei, Z. (2010). Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing. Routledge.
Ducar, C. (2012). SHL Learners’ attitudes and motivations. En Beaudrie, S. M. y Fairclough, M. A. (Eds.), Spanish as a Heritage Language in the United States: The state of the Field (pp.161-178). Georgetown University Press.
Fishman, J. A. (2001). Reversing Language Shift. Multicultural Matters.
Flores, A. (2015). Hispanic Population in the United States Statistical Portrait. Statistical portrait of Hispanics in the United States. Pew Research Center.
Flores, C. M. (2015). Losing a language in childhood: A longitudinal case study on language attrition. Journal of Child Language, 42(3), 562-90.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000914000233
Flores, N. y Rosa, J. (2015). Undoing appropriateness Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education. Harvard Educational Review, 85(2), 149-171.
https://doi.org/10.17763/0017-8055.85.2.149.
García, O. y Kleifgen J. A. (2018). Educating Emergent Bilinguals. Policies, Programs, and Practices for English Learners. Teachers College Press.
González-Barrera, A. (2015). More Mexicans leaving than coming to the U.S. Pew Research Center.
https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2015/11/19/more-mexicans-leaving-than-coming-to-the-u-s/
Hasson, D. J. (2008). Self-perceptions of native language abilities in bilingual Hispanic young adults. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 21(2), 138-153.
Jenkins, D. (2010). The state(s) of Spanish in the Southwest: a comparative study of language maintenance and socioeconomic variables. En S. V. Rivera-Mills y D. J. Villa (Eds.), Spanish of the U.S. Southwest: a language in transition, (pp. 133-156). Iberoamericana-Vervuert Publishing Corp.
Jenkins, D. (2018). Spanish Language use, maintenance, and shift in the United States. En Potowski, K. (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Spanish as a Heritage Language (pp. 53-65). Routledge.
Leeman, J. (2012). Investigating Language Ideologies in Spanish as a Heritage Language. En Beaudrie, S. M. y Fairclough, M. A. (Eds), Spanish as a Heritage Language in the United States: The state of the Field (pp. 43-60). Georgetown University Press.
López, G. y Patten, E. (2015). The Impact of Slowing Immigration: Foreign-Born Share Falls Among 14 Largest U.S. Hispanic Groups. Pew Research Center.
López, M., Krogstad, J. y Flores, A. (2018). Most Hispanic parents speak Spanish to their children, but this is less in the case in later immigrant generations. Pew Research Center.
Lozano, R. (2018). An American language: The history of Spanish in the United States. University of California Press.
https://doi.org/10.1525/j.ctt21668qw
McCullough, R. E. y Devin L. J. (2005). Out with the old, in with the new? Recent trends in Spanish language use in Colorado. Southwest Journal of Linguistics, 24(1-2), 91-110.
Montrul, S. (2008). Incomplete Acquisition in Bilingualism: Re-examining the Age Factor. John Benjamins.
Montrul, S. (2011). Morphological errors in Spanish second language learners and heritage speakers. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(2), 155-61.
Montrul, S. (2012). Is the heritage language like a second language? EUROSLA Yearbook, 12(1), 1-29.
https://doi.org/10.1075/eurosla.12.03mon
Montrul, S. (2013). How “Native” Are Heritage Speakers? Heritage Language Journal, 10(2), 15-39.
Noe-Bustamante, L., López, M. H. y Krogstad, J. M. (2020). U.S. Hispanic population surpassed 60 million in 2019, but growth has slowed.
Ortega, L. (2019). SLA and the study of equitable multilingualism. The Modern Language Journal, 103(Supplement 2019), 23-38.
https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12525
Ortega, L. (2020). The study of heritage language development from a bilingualism and social justice perspective. Language Learning, 70(S1), 15-53.
https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12347
Polinsky, M. (2018). Heritage languages and their speakers. Cambridge University Press.
Potowski, K. (2004). Spanish language shift in Chicago. Southwest Journal of Linguistics. 23 (1), 87-116.
Potowski, K. (2018). Spanish as a heritage/minority language: A multifaceted look at ten nations. En Potowski, K. (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Spanish as a Heritage Language (pp. 1-14). Routledge.
Rivera-Mills, S. V. (2001). Acculturation and communicative need: Language shift in an ethnically diverse Hispanic community. Southwest Journal of Linguistics. 19(2), 211-224.
Rivera-Mills, S. V. (2012). Spanish heritage language maintenance. Its leg and its future. En Beaudrie, S. M. y Fairclough, M. A. (Eds.), Spanish as a Heritage Language in the United States: The state of the Field (pp. 21-42). Georgetown University Press.
Rivera-Mills, S. V y Trujillo, D. J. (2010). Building communities and Making Connections. Cambridge Scholars.
Rumbaut, R. G. y Massey, D. S. (2013). Immigration and Language Diversity in the United States. Daedalus, 142(3), 141–154.
United States Census Bureau. (Julio, 2019) Hispanic Origin. U. S. Census Bureau News.
https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2019/demo/hispanic-origin/2019-cps.html
Valdés, G. (2000). Introduction. In American Association of Spanish and Portuguese, Spanish for Native Speakers, Volume I. AATSP Professional Development Series Handbook for Teachers K-16. Harcourt College.
Vanhove, J. (2013). The Critical Period Hypothesis in Second Language Acquisition: A Statistical Critique and a Reanalysis. Plos One, 8(7), e69172.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069172
Villa, D., Lapidus Shin, N. & Robles Nagata, E. (2014). La nueva frontera: Spanish-Speaking Populations in Central Washington. Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 7(1), 149-172.
https://doi.org/10.1515/shll-2014-1161
Washington Office of Financial Management. (2020). Population of Hispanic/Latino origin.
Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. (2021). Report Card. Enrollment by student demographics.
https://washingtonstatereportcard.ospi.k12.wa.us/ReportCard/ViewSchoolOrDistrict/103300
